Restorative effects of small urban parks: a multi-method study using eye-tracking and psychophysiological measures in Fuzhou, China

The restorative effects of small urban parks are jointly influenced by park type, gender, and landscape elements. Small comprehensive parks demonstrated superior performance-primarily due to their diverse and integrated natural landscapes-whereas linear waterfront parks were particularly effective in physiological regulation. Pocket parks and community parks provided comparatively weaker restorative effects, likely constrained by limited amenities and spatial configurations. Females were more sensitive to psychological perceptions (e.g., "being away," "fascination") and physiological responses. Natural elements (e.g., multi-layered vegetation, water bodies) served as core drivers of stable restoration, whereas the role of artificial facilities was context-dependent: traditional architecture enhanced cultural identity, while dense modern facilities potentially increased cognitive load.