Trends of groundwater level and driving factors in Sagar and Satna smart cities in eastern Madhya Pradesh, Central India

Groundwater is a vital freshwater resource supporting livelihoods, agriculture, and ecosystems. However, degrading environment due to climate change and anthropogenic activities e.g. urban expansion and land use/land cover (LULC) dynamics has led towards its depletion. Particularly, conditions are worst at cities which experience both phenomena simultaneously. Therefore, present study investigates groundwater trends in Sagar and Satna smart cities of eastern Madhya Pradesh, Central India; characterized by semi-arid conditions, increasing climate variability and rapid LULC change. The study is based on groundwater data, acquired from the National Water Informatics Center, India. Geo-spatial datasets were utitlized to detect spatial changes in 2015 and 2022, a part of smart city project implementation period. Trends and their magnitude in groundwater levels are assessed through Mann-Kendall & Sen’s Slope, respectively. Additionally, one kilometre buffer zones around wells were created to evaluate the impact of LULC on groundwater level. The results of the study highlight similar groundwater trends in both cities. Annually, two stations in Sagar City showed stable and increasing water levels, while other exhibited steady decline. Although during pre-monsoon season, all stations showed a significant (increasing/decreasing) trend and no trend is reported in monsoon season. Annually, Satna-1 station of Satna city showed groundwater replenishment, while Satna-2 station showed decline in groundwater level. Ramtekri station remained stable at the same time. Geospatial analysis from 2015 to 2022 revealed a rapid urban expansion with built-up areas increasing by 98.29 % (Sagar) and 108.17 % (Satna), accompanied by significant vegetation loss 43.30 % and 72.63 %, respectively. Barren land surged, especially in Satna (196.99 %), while water bodies declined by up to 14.01 %, threatening recharge potential. In addition to LULC dynamics, proximity to lakes, topographic elevation are the primary and the climatic indicators are the secondary key factors influencing groundwater trends. Moreover, ground water stations nearby the surface water bodies and having lower elevation show no trends or replenishment.