From symbolic violence to structural exclusion: The multidimensional nature of Islamophobia in Europe

Amid growing concerns over rising religious tensions and anti-Muslim sentiment in Europe, this study develops and validates a robust Islamophobia Index to systematically measure experiences of discrimination among Muslim communities. Leveraging survey data from 3598 respondents (including 466 Muslims) across Belgium, Germany, Spain, and Italy, confirmatory factor analysis validated a three-factor structure for the Islamophobia Index, comprising Experiential Violence, Perceived Negativity, and Global Event Impacts. The index demonstrated metric invariance across Belgium, Germany, and Spain (N = 444 analysis sample), supporting its utility for cross-national comparisons. Regression analyses indicate systemic exclusion; perceived global event impacts emerged as a significant statistical predictor of both experiential violence and perceived negativity. Experiences were also found to vary with demographic factors such as age and income in certain models. While specific hypothesised intersectional effects (e.g., gender with religious identification) were not statistically significant in the tested models, the research illustrates the value of considering compounded vulnerabilities. The validated three-factor Islamophobia Index provides a nuanced quantitative measure capable of capturing both overt prejudice and perceptions of structural discrimination. By bridging critical theory with empirical rigour, this research points to the need for transnational, intersectional policy frameworks to dismantle institutionalised religious marginalisation and foster inclusive societies across Europe.