Energy, economic and environmental impacts of cryptocurrency mining: a review of sustainable integration pathways in power systems

The integration of cryptocurrency mining into modern power systems is increasingly viewed as both a challenge and an opportunity. Proof of Work (PoW) mining consumes 100–130 TWh annually, generates 48.6–64.4 Mt of CO2, and creates significant electronic waste. Unlike conventional loads, mining facilities are highly flexible; they can curtail demand within minutes and join demand response programs, making them valuable for grid stability and renewable energy integration. This review examines cryptocurrency mining within electric grids across technical, economic, environmental, and policy dimensions. It explores facility operations, their role in renewable adoption and storage management, and their capacity to provide ancillary services that enhance grid flexibility, while also addressing environmental and regulatory implications. A systematic review methodology was applied, using keyword based searches in leading engineering databases and comparative analysis of quantitative results with real-world projects. Evidence indicates that coordinated mining can reduce microgrid operational costs by up to 46 % and improve distributed solar economics by more than 60 %, whereas unmanaged growth risks higher emissions and infrastructure stress. Key gaps persist, including a lack of standardized integration protocols, limited stability assessments, and weak policy frameworks. A multidisciplinary framework is proposed to guide technical, economic, environmental, and regulatory integration.