Awkward Pronouns in Language Contact

Abstract This paper investigates how speakers of Limburgian dialects deal with a pronoun which is similar in form yet markedly different in meaning in the dominating contact language Dutch. The neuter pronoun het exists in both Dutch and Limburgian, but can refer to women only in the latter. By contrast, feminine pronouns which are similar in form can be used in both languages ( zij in Dutch and ziej in Limburgian). In a production study containing visual and linguistic stimuli, Limburgian speakers ( N = 138) produced a total of 10,558 pronouns with female referents. The same participants completed a questionnaire about their bilingual experiences, and attitudes regarding so-called ‘non-feminine’ pronouns for women in Limburgian. Our findings show considerable variation across speakers and suggest that, to account for this variation, a holistic view combining cognitive and social factors is essential.