Suicide Risks Among U.S. College Students: a Time-Series Cross-Sectional Study Examining Institutional Characteristics and Behavioral Factors

Suicide has become the second leading cause of death among U.S. college students, exacerbated by COVID-19. A more comprehensive understanding of its risk factors can guide the development of effective prevention strategies tailored to this population. We employed a time-series cross-sectional approach and used the national survey data from the American College Health Association to examine the effects of institutional characteristics (school locale, region, size, and type) and behavioral factors (physical and social activities) on suicide risks among U.S. college students across different pandemic phases (before, early phase, and late phase). We also tested whether behavioral factors moderated the association between the pandemic period and suicide risk. After adjusting for confounders, multilevel regression results showed that (1) suicide risk increased during the pandemic, particularly in the late phase; (2) institutional characteristics, including geographic region and religious affiliation, as well as student behaviors such as physical and social activities, were significant predictors of suicide risks; and (3) behavioral factors moderated the pandemic's effect on suicide risk, as shown by the role of social activities (e.g., team sports, socializing with friends) amplifying the effect, whereas spending time with family mitigated it. Because risk rose fastest where certain social activities intensified pandemic effects, campuses should prioritize structured, lower-risk social engagement, while pairing selective strategies in high-activity settings (e.g., targeted screening, gatekeeper training) with universal measures (e.g., campus-wide suicide prevention program). Overall, this study offers evidence-informed guidance to shape campus environments that mitigate suicide risk and support student well-being, considering institutional context, behavioral factors, and public health crises.