Evidence of bipolar knapping of mammoth ivory at Medzhybizh A: Technological and experimental insights from a lower Palaeolithic context

This paper presents the results of a technological and experimental study of mammoth ivory artefacts recovered from Layer II–I of the Medzhybizh A Lower Palaeolithic site in western Ukraine. Ivory is an unusual material in prehistoric knapping traditions, especially in earlier periods. Our experiments demonstrate that the workability of ivory depends strongly on its preservation state: over-dried specimens are brittle and fragment easily, while better-preserved ones allow more controlled knapping. The analysis identifies diagnostic traces of intentional modification on archaeological specimens, including bipolar on anvil knapping features, scars, facets, impact points, and intensive edge trimming. A deliberately shaped ivory pieces produced by knapping suggests that hominins at Medzhybizh A employed a flexible and opportunistic raw material strategy, occasionally experimenting with ivory as a substitute for lithic materials. While the technological actions mirror stone knapping techniques, no evidence indicates adaptation to the specific properties of ivory. The results provide unique insights into the variability and adaptability of raw material strategies during the Middle Pleistocene and contribute to discussions on early ivory processing traditions.