Cartilage organoids from basic research to clinical translation

Cartilage organoids (COs) represent an emerging model system that advances joint repair and tissue regeneration research. These three-dimensional models overcome the limitations of traditional monolayer culture by preserving chondrocyte phenotype and metabolic function, while also modeling pathological microenvironments like osteoarthritis. This capability positions COs as powerful tools for investigating disease mechanisms and screening therapeutic agents. Furthermore, when integrated with microfluidics, bioprinting, and mechanical loading systems, COs exhibit significant potential for applications in personalized tissue engineering. This review synthesizes recent progress in the CO field, critically assesses its translational promise for biomedical applications, and outlines the prevailing challenges and key future research directions.