Impact of surface features on land surface thermal environment in eastern Zhejiang

Understanding the surface thermal environment is vital for assessing climate change, ecosystem health, and the urban heat island effect, as well as comprehending global surface temperature and long-term trends. Based on eastern Zhejiang, we utilised the multi-temporal Landsat data during 2013-2023 to obtain the surface temperature with the Landsat8/9 Level2 temperature product. We analysed the influence of the surface thermal environment on different land cover types, different geomorphological types, and seasonal variations by the elevation, slope, aspect, shaded relief, NDVI (Normalised Difference Vegetation Index), NDBI (Normalised Difference Built-up Index), and MNDWI (Modified Normalised Difference Water Index). We analysed seasonal variability, geomorphic units, shadow terrain, and correlations between landforms and the surface thermal environment using a regression model. Elevation and slope showed significant negative correlations in forested and shaded areas, especially in autumn and winter (R 2 = 0.56 in full map), and were stronger in mountains than plains. Seasonal solar radiation caused slope–temperature differences, most pronounced in winter very correlated with temperature in mountainous areas except summer. NDVI was negatively correlated (R 2 = 0.19 in full map), highlighting vegetation’s cooling effect, while NDBI was strongly positive (R 2 = 0.45 in full map) due to impervious surfaces and reduced ventilation. MNDWI showed a cooling effect (R 2 = 0.14 in full map) linked to water and humidity.