Tracing the Development of Periphrastic Causatives of EFL Learners From Different L1 Backgrounds: Insights From Learner Corpora

Expressing causation through complex grammatical constructions is a significant challenge for EFL learners, as these constructions often involve nuanced semantic and pragmatic considerations beyond simple grammatical rules. Periphrastic causatives represent a syntactic and semantic category that enables learners to articulate causal relationships concisely. Previous research has documented EFL learners’ underuse, overuse, and misuse of periphrastic causatives compared to native speakers, highlighting cross-linguistic influences and exposure effects. However, most studies focus on single native language (L1) backgrounds or specific proficiency levels, leaving gaps in understanding developmental trajectories across diverse L1s and a continuum of proficiency. Thus, this study investigates the development of periphrastic causative constructions with MAKE, HAVE, and LET in writings of Chinese, Swedish, and Spanish EFL learners across proficiency levels from A2 to C2 through a usage-based approach. Employing corpus analysis of token and type frequencies, the findings reveal the predominance of causative MAKE but distinct L1-influenced patterns. For HAVE and LET, nuanced interactions between L1, proficiency, and development emerged. High token frequencies facilitated chunk entrenchment, while increasing type frequencies promoted abstraction and productivity, reflecting a progression from formulaic to generalized usage. These findings align with usage-based principles, contributing insights into language development processes. Pedagogically, the results inform instructional design tailored to learners’ needs and paths across diverse L1s and proficiency levels.