Comprehensive analysis of air-sea interactions and surface heat fluxes in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, and Arabian Sea

This study provides a comprehensive assessment of air–sea interactions and surface heat flux variability across the PG, GO and AS during the 1979–2021 period, based on ERA5 reanalysis data. The main components of surface energy exchange—including latent ( Q L ), sensible ( Q S ), shortwave ( Q SW ), and longwave ( Q LW ) fluxes, as well as surface wind stress ( τ )—were analyzed to identify spatial, temporal, and seasonal patterns. The PG exhibited the highest latent heat loss (−137 W m⁻²) and a marked warming in sea surface temperature (SST) from 26.9 °C to 27.8 °C, reflecting intensified evaporation and regional warming. The GO showed a net heat gain of +35 W m⁻², while the AS experienced moderate heat loss ( Q net ≈ 27 W m⁻²). Distinct seasonal cycles were identified: maximum heating during spring and summer in the PG and GO, and during the southwest monsoon in the AS, followed by strong cooling in autumn and winter. Daytime fluxes were generally higher than nighttime values, indicating pronounced diurnal variations linked to solar forcing and atmospheric stability. Overall, the PG demonstrated the most significant long-term warming trend, whereas the GO maintained consistently higher SSTs and the AS showed greater wind-driven turbulence. These findings reveal the contrasting energy exchange regimes among the three basins and emphasize their role in modulating regional climate variability under ongoing global warming.