Electrochemical sensors: a review of group 10 and 11 metal composites for the detection of β-Lactam in aqueous media

• Summarise electrochemical sensors of group 10/11 metal NP for β-lactam detection in aqueous media. • Shows synergistic sensitivity and selectivity gains from metal NPs on carbon supports. • Provides mechanistic insights into β-lactam recognition and electrochemical signalling. • Compares detection limits, linear range, stability, and portability of sensor platforms. • Identifies environmental antibiotic challenges and future sensor design and practical use. In recent years, the continuous release of antibiotics into the ecosystem has revealed significant downstream effects on a widespread population, leading to fatality and various deleterious impacts on the health of biological systems. Consequently, the development and accessibility of effective and straightforward recognition techniques for these pollutants have become critically imperative. Electrochemical strategies, characterised by their compactness, cost-effectiveness, and sensitivity, present a viable method for investigating antibiotics, offering information even in remote locations. Despite the availability of some commercially produced environmental sensors, they exhibit limitations such as cross-sensitivity, susceptibility to environmental interference, and drift over time. In contrast, electrochemical sensing offers distinct advantages, including rapid results generation, low detection limit, and portability. This review paper comprehensively addresses various aspects, encompassing sensor types, sensing materials, sensing techniques, and challenges associated with antibiotic sensing. The focus is mainly on β-lactam antibiotics due to their widespread use, prevalence, distribution, and adverse environmental and human health impacts. The review examines recent trends in utilising metallic nanoparticles, such as gold, silver, copper, and palladium, in conjunction with carbon-based materials for the design of electrochemical sensors that detect β-lactam antibiotics. Detailed discussions elucidate diverse mechanisms underlying the electrochemical sensing of β-lactam antibiotics while concurrently addressing existing challenges and providing future recommendations.