Cultural and Gender Influences on Facial Attractiveness: A Comparative Study of Japanese and American Raters Using Geometric Morphometrics

Facial attractiveness is a critical factor in forming interpersonal impressions. Evaluations of facial attractiveness were previously considered universal. However, it has recently been pointed out that individuals and cultures can diversify their evaluations. This study conducted Web experiments using the facial images of Japanese and American participants to examine the effects of raters' gender, age, and culture on facial attractiveness. Experiment 1 examined the impact of gender and age on Japanese raters. Experiment 2 explored the effects of culture on Japanese and American raters. Statistical and morphometric analyses were conducted on the obtained data. The results showed significant positive correlations between attractiveness ratings across gender, age, and culture. However, the results of the geometric morphometrics revealed that several differences in preferences regarding facial contours were observed among participants by gender. Additionally, Japanese raters were more likely than American raters to emphasize raised eyebrows for faces in attractive male images, and smaller mouths for faces in attractive female images. These results suggest that the facial features driving attractiveness evaluations differ depending on gender and culture, offering detailed insights into the culturally diverse standards of facial attractiveness. This study adds to the growing understanding of how cultural and individual factors shape aesthetic preferences, questioning the notion of universal beauty, and offering a clearer framework for future cross-cultural research on facial attractiveness.