Simulation of the refuelling process for an LH2-powered commercial aircraft part 1 - Modelling and validation

Liquid hydrogen (LH 2 ) is a promising candidate for zero emission aviation, but its cryogenic properties make the refuelling process fundamentally different from that of conventional jet fuels. Although previous studies have addressed LH 2 storage and system integration, detailed modelling of the refuelling process remains limited. This paper presents the first part of a two-part study focused on simulation of the refuelling process for an LH 2 -powered commercial aircraft. An existing tank model is substantially modified to more accurately capture relevant physical phenomena, including heat transfer and droplet dynamics during top-fill spray injection. Newly available experimental data on LH 2 no-vent filling enables direct validation of the model under conditions that match the experimental setup. A sensitivity analysis identifies the most influential parameters that affect model precision, including loss coefficient, droplet diameter, radiative heat ingress, and vent-closing pressure. The validated model forms the basis for Part 2 of this study, in which it is applied to a representative LH 2 -powered commercial aircraft to simulate refuelling times, quantify venting losses, and assess the impact of key operational settings. These results support the design of efficient LH 2 refuelling systems for future aircraft and airport infrastructure. • A detailed mathematical model on the cryogenic refuelling process. • Spray droplet model taken into account. • The model compares well with cryogenic experiment of NASA. • The vent pressure has significant influence on the refuelling time.