Adverse childhood experiences, and violence and criminal justice outcomes in adulthood—the moderating role of protective and compensatory childhood experiences

ACEs, particularly when experienced in accumulation, are associated with increased exposure to violence in adulthood and the criminal justice system. However, associations are moderated by exposure to PACEs, particularly always having a trusted adult or friend in childhood. Surprisingly, the role of extra-curricular activities differed from that of a trusted adult or friend, which warrants further investigation. Focusing prevention efforts on preventing ACEs and building resiliency in childhood is vital for reducing the long-term impacts of ACEs on individuals, communities, and public health and law enforcement services.