The African clean energy-deforestation paradox: Examining the sustainability trade-offs of rural solar energy expansion in Zambia

Clean energy programmes increasingly promote solar in rural Africa to expand electricity access and reduce emissions. However, little is known about how off-grid households finance these systems or whether their financing pathways create new environmental challenges. This article examines the clean energy deforestation paradox in Zambia, where the adoption of solar photovoltaic technologies is partly financed through forest-based income. Over a 28-months period, a multi-sited qualitative study was conducted in four rural districts involving 80 interviews and several focus group discussions. Findings were analysed thematically and complemented by geospatial analysis of forest loss from 2001 to 2023 to estimate associated carbon stock reductions and foregone sequestration. Interviewees identified key drivers of forest loss such as charcoal production, timber extraction, firewood collection and agricultural expansion, alongside more subtle activities including firewood for funerals, hunting access, bark and medicinal harvests, honey collection and mopani worm gathering. Many households reported using income from these activities to purchase solar-lighting kits and phone-charging systems in the absence of affordable credit or subsidies. The policy review revealed fragmented governance, where solar programmes seldom consider financing mechanisms while forest initiatives overlook rural energy needs. The study makes two main contributions. First, it provides empirical evidence that clean energy adoption can be linked to environmentally damaging financing strategies. Second, it offers a combined social and biophysical assessment that connects household behaviour to carbon outcomes. The study concludes by proposing integrated policies, forest-sensitive solar subsidies, sustainable livelihood options, stronger local enforcement and targeted education to align energy access with environmental conservation.