Comprehensive strategies for the remediation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS): Mechanisms, technologies, and future perspectives

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large class of synthetic compounds extensively used in industrial and consumer products owing to their exceptional thermal stability, hydrophobicity, and resistance to chemical degradation. However, these same physicochemical properties that make PFAS valuable in manufacturing have resulted in their persistent accumulation across environmental matrices, including soil, sediments, water bodies, and biota. Elevated PFAS concentrations are commonly detected at aqueous film-forming foam application sites, fluoropolymer manufacturing facilities, landfills, and biosolid-amended agricultural lands. The removal of PFAS through conventional treatment methods is further constrained by the generation of toxic byproducts, degradation of treatment materials, and high operational costs. The pervasive presence of PFAS adversely affects human health, disrupts soil microbial diversity, impairs plant growth, and damages benthic ecosystems, while posing risks of bioaccumulation and trophic transfer. Detection and remediation of PFAS remain particularly challenging due to their chemical stability, complex mixtures, and typically low environmental concentrations. Moreover, microbial degradation of PFAS remains limited, although certain enzymes (like oxidoreductases, hydrolases) have shown potential to transform several PFAS and their precursors. Regulatory control is further complicated by the vast diversity of PFAS compounds, the scarcity of comprehensive toxicity data, and the lack of standardized guidelines for managing their environmental release and human exposure. Therefore, this review consolidates current knowledge on the environmental distribution, ecological impacts, and challenges associated with the PFAS remediation.