Chemotaxonomic profiling of Rubus sanctus populations from four Iraqi regions using GCMS

Rubus sanctus Schreb., a medicinal shrub indigenous to the Kurdistan region of Iraq, has been utilized in traditional medicine for its anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and hepatoprotective properties. This study aims to provide a comprehensive chemotaxonomical profile of the leaf metabolome of Rubus sanctus, collected from four distinct locations (Kore, Balisan, Hiran, and Choman) utilizing GC-MS analysis to examine the impact of ecological variability on secondary metabolite composition. A total of 187 volatile and semi-volatile compounds were identified, including terpenoids, fatty acids, aromatic derivatives, and esters, many of which are linked to antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering demonstrated notable chemical differentiation among populations, with Kore exhibiting the greatest diversity in terpenoid content, specifically squalene and neophytadiene. These findings are consistent with previous studies on related Rubus species, including R. idaeus and Crataegus azarolus , which identified sterolic compounds such as β-sitosterol and campesterol as associated with cardiovascular and metabolic advantages. The observed variation underscores the chemotaxonomic significance of secondary metabolites in differentiating closely related plant populations affected by environmental factors, including altitude and soil composition. This study incorporates ethnobotanical information from Safeen Mountain, highlighting the traditional use of Rubus sanctus in the treatment of liver and inflammatory conditions. The findings underscore the significance of location-specific research in pharmacognosy and establish a basis for subsequent bioactivity assays and the isolation of essential compounds. This study enhances the understanding of phytochemical diversity and therapeutic potential of underutilized medicinal plants in the Kurdistan region by integrating modern analytical techniques with indigenous knowledge. • Chemotaxonomic profiling of Iraqi Rubus sanctus. • 100+ bioactive compounds identified via GC-MS. • Regional variation in metabolite composition. • Kore population richest in terpenoids. • Integrates traditional knowledge with modern analysis.