What types of pets associate with well-being of their owners in Japan?

Abstract Background : Research findings on the relationship between pet ownership and well-being are inconsistent. One reason for this inconsistency is inadequate differentiation between pet types. Numerous studies have focused only on dogs and cats, failing to examine the effects of owning less common pets. Another reason for the inconsistency is the insufficient control of individual differences among respondents, such as demographic variables. This study examined owners of different types of pets while controlling for a series of potential confounding covariates. Methods : This study examined a non-representative sample of owners of 16 types of pets by selecting the owners from a pool of registered monitors held by a research company. The study analyzed data from 3837 respondents to estimate the average treatment effects of pet ownership on well-being, using a doubly robust regression model. Well-being indicators included happiness, mental health, and self-assessed health. The covariates, grouped into demographic variables, personality traits, exposure to fauna, exposure to flora, and characteristics of the living area, were included in the analysis either independently or simultaneously. Results : First, the relationship between pet ownership and well-being varied by pet type, with most types showing no relationship. The owners of birds and reptiles (excluding turtles) reported lower mental health than non-owners. Second, dog ownership was positively associated with well-being, with the most significant improvement observed among the owners of small dogs. Third, the relationship between dog ownership and well-being varied greatly depending on the respondents’ dog-walking habits; well-being was higher when they walked regularly and lower when they did not. Finally, the magnitude and direction of the relationship between pet ownership and the well-being indicators differed depending on whether the covariates were controlled for. Conclusions : The findings indicate that dogs have a clear advantage over other pets in the magnitude of their association with owners’ well-being. However, this superiority holds only when owners maintain a dog-walking habit. Furthermore, the results demonstrate that the association between pet ownership and well-being indicators must be examined while controlling for individual differences and characteristics of living areas, with demographic factors showing particular importance.