Classification of biomorphic motif designs: a case study on the exterior façades of the Dome of the Rock

This study analyzes the classification and stylistic diversity of biomorphic motifs on four exterior façades of the Dome of the Rock – south, north, northwest and northeast – an iconic example of Islamic architectural ornamentation. Biomorphic motifs, inspired by natural, repetitive patterns, enrich Islamic art across media such as architecture, manuscripts and textiles. While existing classifications often emphasize geometric frameworks, they frequently overlook the unique fluidity of biomorphic designs in architectural contexts. Using a non-invasive, zone-based approach, we document motif distribution, placement and style through high-resolution photography and digital measurement/coding. The study focuses on specific ornamental zones, including door arches and window surrounds, revealing influences from Persian, Chinese and Byzantine art. Through detailed documentation and historical cross-referencing, the research proposes a tailored classification for biomorphic motifs, addressing a gap in analyses of Islamic architectural ornament. Findings indicate a consistent deployment of semi-stylized floral fields – rumī, hatāyī, penç, cloud-band, leaves/buds – calibrated to architectural context, producing façade-scale coherence. As motif-level comparanda, we reference Rüstem Paşa Mosque (Istanbul, 1561–63) and Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque (Isfahan, 1603–19) to show that the same families recur across eras and zones, reinforcing a stable divider–filler–connector grammar.