Universal by Design: Unveiling the Effectiveness of Accommodations and Universal Design Features through Process Data

Abstract This study examines the relationship between testing accommodations, universal design (UD) features, and standardized test performance within a digital testing framework. Utilizing a novel dataset—the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) process data—and advanced statistical methodologies such as inverse probability weighting and doubly robust models, we provide compelling evidence on the utility of specific accommodations and UD features. Extended time usage is associated with improved test performance for students with disabilities, emphasizing the crucial role it plays in fostering equitable testing conditions. While scratchwork is associated with improved test performance for students with disabilities, the associations between text‐to‐speech and equation editors and student performance are mixed, suggesting that these features may act as potential distractions rather than support for some students.