Influence of surrounding topography on earthquake ground motions in intermontane basin settings: insights from the Kathmandu basin

SUMMARY Intermontane basins in active orogenic regions face significant seismic hazard due to their proximity to sustained tectonic activity. While the sediments deposited in these basins create a relatively flat topography suitable for urban and infrastructure developments, their unconsolidated sedimentary fill locally amplifies earthquake-induced ground motions, thereby increasing the seismic hazard and risk. Documented observations suggest that ground motion estimates in these basins are often poorly constrained due to oversight of surrounding surface topography and insufficient subsurface information about deeper basin layering, leading to inaccurate hazard assessments. In this study, we systematically evaluate the implications of these two factors on ground motion characteristics up to 4.4 Hz, which is crucial for earthquake engineering practices. We conducted 3-D simulations around the Kathmandu catchment area (Nepal) using hypothetical thrust-faulting moment tensor sources at various depths and locations. The results show a significant reduction, by an order of magnitude, in the peak ground velocities at the catchment area due to surface topography. However, this effect is prominent only for very shallow earthquakes producing predominant surface waves; for deeper sources, the de-amplification may be negligible or even result in amplification due to scattered body waves converted into surface waves. To incorporate basin-specific material properties, we performed the analysis in a computationally feasible 2-D domain, which shows that the existence of topography can reduce the energy entering the basin, hence resulting in a reduced basin amplification. The deeper layers of the Kathmandu basin play a critical role in controlling the spatial variability of the observed amplification, with significant differences within the basin compared to scenarios that exclude these deeper layers. We conclude that neglecting topography in ground motion predictions may lead to an overestimation of ground motion amplification in the basin. Pronounced topographic features in the surrounding of intermontane basins can result in further scattering of the received energy content from earthquakes occurring outside of the basin, especially for the high-frequency motions. In addition, in order to provide site-specific measures of ground motion in intermontane basins, high-spatial resolution of the underlying geological structure is deemed imperative.