Mechanistic insights into nonthermal ablation of copper nanoparticles under femtosecond laser irradiation

Femtosecond (fs) laser sintering enables ultrafast and spatially localized energy deposition, making it attractive for additive manufacturing of metal nanoparticles. However, undesired ablation during fs irradiation of copper (Cu) nanoparticles often disrupts uniform sintering, and the underlying ablation mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this work, we investigate the fragmentation and coalescence behavior of Cu nanoparticles subjected to fs laser scanning under fluence conditions relevant to sintering applications. Particle size distributions extracted from scanning electron microscopy reveal a bimodal transformation: emergence of sub-60 nm debris and formation of large aggregates up to 750 nm. We evaluate two candidate mechanisms—Coulomb explosion and hot electron blast—by estimating electron emission, electrostatic pressure, and hot electron temperature using the Richardson–Dushman equation and two-temperature modeling. Our analysis shows that Coulomb explosion is unlikely under the laser fluence used (∼27 mJ/cm2), as the estimated electrostatic pressure (∼4 kPa) is orders of magnitude below the cohesive strength of Cu. In contrast, hot electron blast is identified as the dominant ablation pathway, with electron temperatures exceeding 5000 K and resulting blast pressures above 6 GPa. Thermal modeling also suggests moderate lattice heating (∼930 K), enabling softening and fusion of partially fragmented particles. These results confirm that fs laser-induced ablation in Cu nanoparticles is driven predominantly by nonthermal electron dynamics rather than classical melting or evaporation. Importantly, this work highlights that reducing hot electron temperature—such as through double-pulse irradiation schemes—can effectively suppress ablation and expand the sintering window, offering a promising strategy for precision nanoscale additive manufacturing.