Ship emissions and social costs at Southeast Asian container ports

Abstract This study investigates ship emissions and associated social costs at major container ports in Southeast Asia, a region facing growing environmental pressure from maritime activities. Using a bottom-up approach based on vessel-specific data, the study estimates port-level emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), particulate matter (PM2.5) and carbon dioxide (CO2), alongside their monetized social costs. Findings show that while large ports contribute higher total emissions, smaller ports exhibit disproportionately high emission costs per cargo unit, indicating lower eco-efficiency. Emissions peak during congested operational hours, largely driven by frequent calls from smaller and mid-sized vessels. Compared to global benchmarks, Southeast Asian ports face higher emission costs due to limited adoption of green technologies. The results highlight the urgent need for cleaner fuels, shore power and regulatory standards to reduce emissions and improve sustainability. This research provides data-driven insights for policymakers aiming to balance economic growth with environmental responsibility in developing port systems.