Pedestrian crossing behaviour in front of electric vehicles emitting synthetic sounds: A virtual reality experiment

The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), which operate more quietly than internal combustion engine vehicles, raises concerns about their detectability, particularly for visually impaired road users. Regulations mandate exterior sound signals for EVs, ensuring minimum sound pressure levels at low speeds. However, these signals are often used in already noisy urban environments, creating a challenge: enhancing detectability without adding excessive noise pollution. This study explores the use of synthetic exterior sounds that balance high noticeability with low annoyance. An audiovisual experiment was conducted with 20 participants in 15 virtual reality scenarios featuring an EV passing in front of them. Different sound signals, including pure, intermittent, and complex tones at varying frequencies, were tested alongside two baseline cases (a diesel engine and tyre noise alone, i.e., no synthetic sound added). Participants rated sounds for annoyance, noticeability, and informativeness using 11-point ICBEN scales. Trigger measurements provided additional insights into their willingness to cross in front of the EV. The results highlight optimal sound characteristics for EVs, offering guidance on improving pedestrian safety while minimising noise pollution. By refining exterior sound design, this research contributes to the development of effective and user-friendly EV sound standards, ensuring safer and more inclusive urban environments.