‘The threat of forced return is the government’s last resort’: structural, cultural, and direct violence towards Syrian refugees in Lebanon

Abstract Bashar al-Assad’s downfall has intensified ongoing discussions about Syrian refugee return and repatriation, particularly in Lebanon, where the crisis has reopened old wounds, igniting a fervent political debate on refugees, characterised by stringent policies and increased physical and psychological violence against them amidst a worsening state of crisis. Employing Galtung’s triangle of violence–comprising direct, structural, and cultural forms–this study explores the experiences of Syrian refugees in Lebanon. It assesses how state-imposed and community-level coercion influence their decisions regarding onward migration or return to their homeland, challenging the binary voluntary/forced return paradigm. Based on ethnographic and interview findings, the study suggests that fears among the Lebanese population, stemming from the Syrian occupation of Lebanon (1976–2005), and the presence of Palestinian refugees since 1948, were politically exploited to shape and control the crisis narrative. This created an oppressive system that condones and justifies acts of violence, ultimately forcing many refugees to consider relocating elsewhere in Lebanon, migrating to another country, or returning to Syria.