Protective effects of whey camel milk proteins conjugate with metal–organic frameworks (MOF) as antimicrobial and against cobalt-induced chloragogen cell toxicity in earthworms

Camel whey protein (CWP) is rich in potent antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds, while the iron-based metal-organic framework (MOF)-235 offers high biocompatibility for drug delivery. This study synthesised and characterised CWP/MOF-235 nano-conjugates to enhance CWP stability, bioavailability, and therapeutic efficacy. GC-MS analysis confirmed the presence of hepatoprotective and antimicrobial fatty acids in CWP, including oleic acid, palmitic acid methyl ester, and cis-vaccenic acid. Antimicrobial assays revealed that CWP/MOF-235 exhibited greater activity against <i>Candida albicans</i> than CWP or MOF-235, achieving a maximum inhibition zone of 36.3 mm. Using <i>earthworm (Aporrectodea caliginosa</i>), cobalt chloride-induced chloragogen cell toxicity was effectively ameliorated by CWP/MOF-235, restoring normal intestinal histoarchitecture and reducing cellular necrosis as confirmed by light, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy. These findings demonstrate that CWP/MOF-235 nano-conjugates synergistically combine the bioactivity of camel whey proteins with the delivery potential of MOF-235, offering a promising eco-friendly strategy for managing heavy metal toxicity and microbial infections.