A comparative review of material supply chains and sustainability pathways in steel and battery technologies

Global material sourcing is undergoing an unprecedented transformation, particularly in the critical steel and battery sectors, which underpin infrastructure, mobility, and the global clean energy transition. Driven by a complex interplay of geopolitical tensions, climate imperatives, technological innovation, and market volatility, the sourcing of raw materials has become a focal point of industrial strategy and policy debate. This review explores the structural shifts and strategic responses shaping material supply chains in the 21st century. China’s industrial rise, the decline of traditional producers, and the systemic vulnerabilities of lean global supply chains are analyses through empirical and theoretical lenses. The paper evaluates the adoption of decarbonisation technologies such as Electric Arc Furnaces (EAF) and hydrogen-based steelmaking, as well as the evolving chemistry and circular economy potential in lithium-ion battery production. In doing so, it highlights the risks posed by Critical Raw Material (CRM) dependencies, ethical supply concerns, and the uneven global policy landscape. Digital innovations and life cycle assessment frameworks are presented as enabling tools for transparency and sustainability. Ultimately, this review argues for a reorientation of global sourcing strategies centred on resilience, circularity, and governance to achieve climate targets and equitable industrial growth.