Integrating water footprint into cultivated land ecological compensation model: Insights from a provincial-level analysis in mainland China

Cultivated land ecological compensation aims to reconcile ecological protection with socioeconomic fairness. While various footprints have been utilized in related studies to depict ecological conditions, existing models remain inadequate because they fail to incorporate the water footprint, which reflects both crop growth requirements and the pressure of agricultural activities on water resources. Grounded in the footprint family theory, this paper develops a methodological innovation by integrating the water footprint into the cultivated land ecological compensation model in the form of land occupation, that considers both agricultural water consumption and the water stored by crops. Using annual provincial data from mainland China covering 2000–2023, this paper unveils spatiotemporal variations in ecological footprints, compensation amounts, and other related indicators. Results show that the national average biotic, carbon, and water footprints declined annually, while ecological capacity increased. The national ecological footprint was about 3.29 ha, remaining below the ecological capacity of 7.07 ha, indicating a generally favorable ecological balance in cultivated land. The number of paying provinces was about half that of compensated provinces, and total payments were substantially lower than total compensation. Zhejiang and Fujian were typical paying provinces, with the former contributing about 7 billion RMB, whereas Henan, Shandong, and Jiangsu were compensated provinces, each receiving nearly 8 billion RMB on average. These disparities reflect differences in land productivity, ecological burden, and water resource endowment. The study highlights the need to promote precision agriculture and irrigation technologies and to establish fair compensation standards, providing policy insights for sustainable agricultural management. • Water footprint is incorporated into the compensation model. • Various ecological footprints are all higher in developed provinces. • Zhejiang and Fujian have been major paying provinces. • Proposed compensation model is sensible and practical.