Evaluating the Environmental Footprint of Steel-Based Bottle Closures: A Life Cycle Assessment Approach

This research presents a detailed Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of 26 mm Crown cork metal closures used in glass bottle packaging, with the objective of quantifying and comparing their environmental impacts across all life cycle stages. This study adheres to ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 standards and utilizes Microsoft Excel for structuring and documenting input–output data across each phase. The LCA encompasses three primary stages: raw material production (covering iron ore extraction and steel manufacturing), manufacturing processes (including metal sheet printing, forming, and packaging of closures), and the transport phase (distribution to bottling facilities). During the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI), steel production emerged as the most environmentally burdensome phase. It accounted for the highest emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and sulphur oxides (SOx), while emissions of heavy metals and volatile organic compounds were found to be negligible. The Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) was carried out using the Eco-Indicator 99 methodology, which organizes emissions into impact categories related to human health, ecosystem quality, and resource depletion. Final weighting revealed that steel production is the dominant contributor to overall environmental impact, followed by the manufacturing stage. In contrast, transportation exhibited the lowest relative impact. The interpretation phase confirmed these findings and emphasized steel production as the critical stage for environmental optimization. This study highlights the potential for substantial environmental improvements through the adoption of low-emission steel production technologies, particularly Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) processes that incorporate high percentages of recycled steel. Implementing such technologies could reduce CO2 emissions by up to 68%, positioning steel production as a strategic focus for sustainability initiatives within the packaging sector.