Micromechanical Insights Into Cone Penetration Testing in Granular Soils Using Discrete Element Modeling

ABSTRACT The cone penetration test (CPT) is a widely used in situ technique for characterizing granular soils, yet interpretation remains challenging due to the complex interplay of soil microstructure, stress history, and probe characteristics. This study applies three‐dimensional discrete element method (DEM) simulations to investigate cone penetration resistance in clean sands under drained conditions, systematically varying key micromechanical parameters and probe properties. The parametric study examines the effects of particle size, void ratio, stress history (OCR), particle stiffness, interparticle friction, rolling resistance, particle shape, cone–soil interface friction, and cone tip angle on cone tip resistance ( q c ) and sleeve friction ( f s ). Results show that denser fabrics, stiffer or more angular grains, higher interparticle friction, and greater rolling resistance significantly increase q c , particularly in dense states where particle interlocking and dilatancy dominate. OCR strongly amplifies penetration resistance, with overburden pressure normalized q c and f s resistances increasing exponentially from OCR = 1 to 16. Probe‐related parameters, including blunter cone angles and rougher cone faces, further elevate q c , while sleeve wear can shift resistance from the sleeve to the cone tip. These findings clarify how micro‐mechanical and probe variables influence CPT measurements and highlight the need to account for them in interpretation frameworks, particularly when assessing soil density, fabric, or stress history from field CPT data.