Non-timber forest products and the bioeconomy: linking livelihood security and biodiversity conservation (2015–2025 trends)

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs), wild foods, fibres, medicines, resins, and animal products are critical to the economies and cultures of rural people in South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America. Data compiled and Meta-analysis from literature and published between 2015 and 2025 indicate that these products are frequently utilized at the household level (approximately 77% usage frequency) and significantly enhance incomes, particularly for land-constrained households and Indigenous populations. In contrast, booms in markets for açaí, shea, and medicinal plants indicate new opportunities but also variable patterns. NTFPs also possess powerful ritual value (e.g., frankincense, kava, babassu) and can incentivize forest stewardship. However, their commercialization without appropriate safeguards may result in the over-extraction of species and ecological degradation. Climate change amplifies pressures. Improvements in post-harvest handling, drying, modified atmospheric packaging, cold chains, and better packaging enhance quality, extend shelf life, and reduce waste, thereby increasing returns and mitigating extraction pressure. Sustainability is underpinned by appropriate policies to secure tenure, recognise community rights, regulate trade, and promote cooperative value addition. Targets revolved around rights-based governance, flexible and responsive monitoring, diversified markets, scalable and efficient processing techniques, and certification schemes, as well as integration of cultural values and biodiversity goals, and climate adaptation. By reframing NTFPs as central to bio economies, we connect livelihood security to biodiversity conservation at multiple scales and across regions.