Advancing Neuromodulation for Functional Movement Disorders: A Contemporary Narrative Review of Evidence, Gaps, and Future Outlook

FMDs reflect circuit-level dysfunction, supporting neuromodulation as a rational intervention. High-frequency rTMS over M1 and anodal tDCS over DLPFC yield modest clinical benefits, but placebo effects remain a confounder. Future progress requires addressing methodological gaps, validating biomarkers, and integrating neuromodulation within personalized, multidisciplinary frameworks that account for socioeconomic and psychosocial contexts to meaningfully reduce disability.