Current Status of Diagnosis of Postoperative Hemorrhage Following Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy (PCNL)

Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) is one of the primary minimally invasive approaches for treating complex renal stones. However, postoperative hemorrhage, as a common and potentially life-threatening complication, severely impacts patient prognosis and hospital resource utilization. In recent years, various imaging modalities have gradually played an important role in diagnosing postoperative bleeding. This paper comprehensively analyzes the clinical classification of postoperative bleeding, and focuses on comparing the characteristics and applicable scenarios of digital subtraction angiography (DSA), computed tomography angiography (CTA), and contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) in bleeding diagnosis, providing more accurate decision-making support for clinical practice.