Lessons learned on socio-ecological drivers of innovation uptake by smallholder farmers–a case study in Kenya

Socio-economic and environmental conditions play an important role in driving technological transformation and sustainability. Based on an innovation project conducted in Kenya, this study demonstrates how socio-ecological analyses can facilitate the adoption of agricultural technologies. This project focused on subsurface water retention technology (SWRT), a climate adaptation approach for sandy soils with proven effectiveness under different ecological conditions. Using maize production data to represent local biophysical conditions, we conducted a cost–benefit analysis (CBA) of SWRT to assess its profitability under current conditions and alternative investment scenarios. We also conducted a livelihood survey and stakeholder dialogue to assess what farmers can afford and identify possible enabling factors for technology adoption and sustainability. The CBA results for maize suggest a long-term return on investment, mainly due to high initial investment costs in terms of labour requirements for SWRT installation (about 70% of initial costs) and a need for irrigation during droughts. In simulations of investments, the break-even point varied depending on the specific investment measures taken alongside SWRT adoption. The livelihood survey indicated that farmers possess resources that could cover the initial investment in SWRT on small plots. However, uptake at scale would require a range of enabling factors, including information on suitable crops and the benefits of investment, and incentives from input and service suppliers. The current yields and prices of maize are not enough for the scaling-up of SWRT. Future studies should incorporate cost–benefit information on high-value crops and analyses of how farmers, and input and service suppliers can better share the investment risks.