Unequal green: a mixed-methods spatial assessment of urban green space provision, quality, and accessibility in Mardan, Pakistan

Abstract Sustainable urban development heavily relies on the provision of accessible and well-managed green spaces, which enhance environmental quality and urban livability. However, in many fast-growing cities, green spaces are unequally distributed and poorly accessible. Therefore, this study assesses the provision, spatial distribution, accessibility, quality and management of green spaces in Mardan, Pakistan, a rapidly urbanising secondary city in South Asia. Using a mixed-method approach combines GIS-based spatial analysis and field surveys to evaluate the quantity, quality, and accessibility of urban green spaces (UGS). Landsat 8/9 imagery in ArcGIS Pro 3.0 was used to evaluate the UGS coverage; accessibility was evaluated through the Two-Step Floating Catchment Area (2SFCA); and quality was assessed using a locally adapted Qualitative Green Space Index (QGSI). Results show that only 307 acres (0.87%) of land is dedicated to green space within an overall urban area of 35,126 acres, translating to a per capita availability of merely 3.1 m 2 , significantly less than the recommended global benchmark. QGSI scores demonstrated considerable discrepancies, with higher education institutions excelling in management and aesthetics compared to municipal authorities. Results from the 2SFCA underscore substantial spatial inequalities in accessibility, particularly in the northern and eastern areas of Mardan. This study offers spatial insights aimed at fostering evidence-based planning for equitable and sustainable development of green infrastructure in intensively developing areas.