One hundred and eighty years of capital expenditure for equitable and climate-resilient water and sanitation in England and Wales

For adequate water and sanitation services, it is necessary to consider the level of capital and capital maintenance expenditure for ongoing systems to deliver SDG-6 and now climate resilience. This study of utility capital expenditure over 180 years found that in England and Wales, UK, it took an average annual investment of $49 per capita (USD$ PPP, 2020 prices) to achieve ‘SDG-6’ equivalence after the first 125 years, at $22,800 GDP pc; $137pc to maintain and enhance service quality over the following 50 years to 2025; with regulatory approval for $228pc annually to 2030 ($50,000 GDP pc). • Water and sanitation (WASH) services are reportedly the most capital intensive of networked utilities. • There were discrete periods of decline in the largely healthy 180 yrs’ trend of WASH capital expenditure in England & Wales. • OFWAT (UK’s WASH regulator) currently focuses on ensuring adequate financing for capital maintenance and climate resilience. • This high-income country case study highlights the capital intensity of WASH infrastructure to deliver sustainable services.