Mudbricks in Medieval West African Architecture: New Evidence from Djoutoubaya (Eastern Senegal) in the Context of the Sahelian Empires

Abstract The Djoutoubaya settlement in the Falémé Valley (Senegal), occupied from the 9th to 14th centuries, provides key insights into West African mudbrick architecture prior to the 16th century. This study examines Djoutoubaya’s architectural evolution, focusing on a mudbrick complex dating to the 13th century. The presence of two distinct brick types – hand-modeled “loaf-shaped” and molded plano-convex – demonstrates diverse construction practices, while the coexistence of circular and rectangular units suggests mixed functional or cultural purposes. Comparative analysis with other early West African sites indicates that Djoutoubaya’s construction techniques likely resulted from both indigenous developments and influences from north of the Sahara. While the 13th-century complex may appear to mark a shift in the site’s architecture coinciding with the rise of the Mali Empire, the evolution of Djoutoubaya’s occupation – and, more broadly, the diachronic distribution of mudbrick in pre-16th-century West Africa – shows that Manding culture neither introduced nor diffused this technique.