PbO-doped K ₂ O–BaO–Al ₂ O ₃ –B ₂ O ₃ –TeO ₂ -glasses: Mechanical and shielding efficacy

Abstract This study investigates the mechanical properties as well as the gamma-ray, neutron, alpha, and proton shielding capabilities of PbO-doped titanium-barium-borate based (TiO 2 –BaO–B 2 O 3 –Al 2 O 3 –K 2 O) glass-ceramic system. Using the Phy-X/PSD program, several gamma-ray shielding parameters such as linear attenuation coefficient ( μ ), mass attenuation coefficient ( μ / ρ ), half value layer (HVL), mean free path, effective atomic number ( Z eff ), exposure buildup factor (EBF) and energy absorption buildup factor (EABF) were theoretically computed in the photon energy range of 0.015–15 MeV. Gamma-ray transmission factors (TFs) were evaluated using Particle and Heavy Ion Transport Code System. Additionally, the projected range (PR) values for protons and alpha in the study were computed using the Stopping and Range of Ions in Matter code. In addition to examining gamma, neutron, alpha, and proton shielding capabilities, the study also assessed elastic modulus, density, and average molecular weight. The mechanical properties for each glass sample were calculated using Makishima–Mackenzie model. The results show an inverse relationship between elasticity and PbO content, indicating a trade-off between mechanical rigidity and radiation shielding effectiveness. A higher PbO concentration (4.5%) significantly raises the molecular weight, density (2.80–3.55 g/cm 3 ), and effective atomic number, which leads to better attenuation. Sample G1, for instance, has HVL = 3.269 cm at 0.662 MeV, while sample G5 exhibits better shielding at 2.538 cm. PbO presence causes buildup factors (EBF/EABF) to rise, particularly at higher photon energies and penetration depths, which suggests increased absorption of secondary photons. Denser, lead-rich glasses are known to promote gamma attenuation, as seen by the continuous reduction in TF with increasing PbO content, thickness (0.5–3.0 cm), and photon energy (0.662, 1.1732, 1.3325 MeV). Neutron shielding effectiveness, measured by the effective removal cross section (Σ R ), improved with higher PbO, with G5 (PbO [4.5%], Σ R = 0.071 cm −1 ) demonstrating the promising performance. The G5 sample has the lowest PR (Φ) values for alpha (Φ p ) and protons (Φ A ) particles, indicating improved stopping power. Finally, comparative benchmarking against literature-reported glass types confirmed the superior protection against gamma rays of the G5 sample. These results demonstrate how PbO-doped titanium-barium-borate based glass-ceramics may be used for sophisticated radiation protection applications by striking a balance between improved shielding and controllable mechanical characteristics.