A Pocket of Quiet Persistence—In the Age of the Feminist Doldrums?: Florence Kitchelt and the Connecticut Committee for the Equal Rights Amendment, 1943–1961

In 1943 Florence Kitchelt made a dramatic shift from her previous stance opposing the Equal Rights Amendment. A former suffragist and leader of the Connecticut League of Women Voters (CLWV) she identified with mainstream feminist. Remarkably, at age 69 she took a radical turn and joined the National Women's Party and helped form the Connecticut Committee for the Equal Rights Amendment (CCERA). Writing to the NWP she made clear her position: As one who in the past has disbelieved in the Equal Rights Amendment, and spoken against it, I now wish to retract and join the National Woman's Party . . . No special argument but just life in general has convinced me. The vote, for which I worked, and marched in one of Alice Paul's parades in Washington, gave us an immense lift, but it was not enough. For a long time I have been growingly conscious that no amount of special benefit to women is good enough to offset the basic damage done to human equality by continuing to accept for women a second place in our social structure. I want to work toward a society in which character wins. The mere possession of wealth and the accident of sex are too often the determining factor. And finally I am convinced it will be good for women to protect their own social and economic rights, rather than to be protected. It may stimulate them to a better use of their vote and to political activity.1The purpose of this article is to examine post-suffrage political activism in Connecticut, with a specific focus on social and political activist Florence Ledyard Cross Kitchelt (1874–1961). Kitchelt's early career as a settlement house worker launched her life-long struggle for women's rights and human rights. Her political trajectory followed a traditional route, starting with suffrage to participation in the Connecticut League of Women Voters (CLWV). As a founding member of the CLWV she identified with mainstream social feminists who supported protective labor legislation for women and objected to the ERA. Following her initial work with the CLWV she accepted a paid position working for the Connecticut League of Nations Association; a position she held from 1924–1943. Despite her advanced age she made an important mark on the history of the ERA in her state and beyond.2The ratification of the nineteenth amendment was a milestone victory for American women because it gave women new legitimacy and opportunity as voters, office holders, and social activists. Yet, early scholars writing on the aftermath of this victory characterized the women's movement as divided and ineffective. The splintering of the suffrage movement, low female voter turnout during the1920s, ideological conflicts between social and radical feminists over the ERA and protective labor legislation for women and children, limited the effectiveness of the women's movement. Moreover, the social and political climate became increasingly hostile to women's rights and feminism. The majority of women who identified as feminists and/ or who promoted feminist causes came directly from the suffrage movement, were older, white, middleclass, college educated, professional of the post-suffrage women to a of held but were by a to women's rights. Despite the of of women the age of the and to for has that the of a of female the of post-suffrage has for a of history that the of to and women's which will in turn our of and on second feminism. work the and participation between that took place in the post-suffrage the it is clear that this to women's effectiveness as and as activists. in The of the us that female participation was not rather of women as political of the a in which women to the of and their rights as In suffrage not but a for women's participation in and as women the political to to for female participation voter voter and political Women to the of Kitchelt's as an and us that the vote was a starting toward political and that women's and that women their new and their a of causes and The of the of the suffrage movement and the of to and the suffrage Connecticut women an as voters, office holders, and social activists. The Party state and the was and Despite the the Connecticut a of between in their for In of launched a new the the is Florence Kitchelt as the the to with of the which she to the that suffrage was not . . a at but and in the for ratification Connecticut women the the Amendment, the political from the new the new of female a with the and the a special was and in of Connecticut became the state to the nineteenth the Following state the the Connecticut Women League of Voters which became one of the in the important on political and from which the and became women and directly in the political A women as office holders, but the majority of women female to and political were of and not as women the political of this activism took place in female but activism in in women were often to their and as a The is a good of this Kitchelt held the of of the for her on the and the of the held the and In a of this the of female political and our of the important that post-suffrage women in in and As in to and to the of rather than focus on the the of and of women's Florence Kitchelt's work this Her for and rights and her and in female and an important for her work on the from in in Florence Kitchelt took a position at the a for which to a career as a social worker in and Connecticut In she Kitchelt and became in the suffrage movement. In she accepted a paid position with the Connecticut Women she and for state as the and as the of the In she accepted a paid position with the she as and her in 1943 to she the and with the NWP and women's to and for the the held in the and their early to life and working in and in with the Florence with the as a settlement house in and in she with women Kitchelt a of the women in the labor early her on protective labor legislation for women and to that women and special in the labor social feminists she that the ERA at the state and the of labor against Kitchelt's to the ERA with and the of the League of the she an with the of the and of she and a the of the Women's League for and were and in women the of work traditional The was no and the clear that women in and but of their time on and and the to on of the For Kitchelt a of time a and in between as and Kitchelt supported the of the League of she was not as an and life her to the ERA. by the limited women made the vote, she came to that a Amendment was to to that the she not as a radical feminist and the feminist because she it was that too was on Kitchelt's on and were to her which was a for the Kitchelt that their not be on or the the . . that were and and that have no or Florence Kitchelt to her her of the and in one that her was on equality and that of the held as a and that one not human rights women's a to the ERA Kitchelt on the NWP for and with to a for the Connecticut the NWP Equal which her with important on the Amendment and the In her as of the she in and and with and the The and to the ERA. she with Alice and NWP them with on in the As a she not or the of the NWP and at was at with the Party and her she for the ERA and with NWP of the Party the In she with the of the NWP and of and with who as the of the of the that during her as of the Kitchelt was an and important with and mainstream the For she held in the American of Women of Women's and Women's and the American on the of feminist and the of equality during this time Kitchelt's with the of the over protective labor in a between women's over the of equality and over to the of the ERA to in mainstream women's an on the that the amendment protective legislation that better working and The of the NWP to the ERA a of women who for suffrage and protective and that ERA their work to working women's rights. Florence of the National League and of the to an for protective Paul's social feminists and that . . . the of the of the Alice of and labor the National Women's League the Women's and the NWP that legislation women's economic and . . them to the paid Despite the of from the NWP in in to the women's rights in and Paul's In of it was to of and it in and the ERA because the of protective labor but as this argument on that the state were in the of and that the ERA was and to women and to the from mainstream women's for the and women the National Committee to the Rights Amendment. The as the and a of to the a to a on the of the and the NWP on mainstream and with the from to the Amendment. In the because the and against women and that protective legislation women from in the As women's to and Moreover, in 1943 the Committee the Amendment and it the The NWP their that in to for the Amendment to and In 1943 the Women's Committee which as the for that the Amendment and over The of ERA during from the and as became NWP the of the NWP and state that to from mainstream women's to and by the and the their the and ERA their Alice that the was not rather it was women that rights. In the were than A of limited their over the of and the to women for to women's rights the by and ratification of the nineteenth the Connecticut women made as voters, office holders, and Kitchelt's the that the vote on women's political activism and of the of this have on the and but in to the of the women's movement is a to the of by the and in with their in her of the Connecticut women's post-suffrage movement, that the focus on suffrage and the a of women's political As she the majority of the early . . to that feminist on the and state . . . and that female activism was by Kitchelt's life work the of and her with the NWP and women's the of of this a of Kitchelt's as a state and and a and on the history of the and became in a of political and women were as a new political from and from women's the of American The NWP the of this political but and female by the made and by their to with mainstream women's As a the NWP the suffrage As has between to as women's women and took but often than . . . the time than the NWP as an and a to with the low which in the of the NWP and Paul's to of the ERA with women's between women and the that she the of mainstream women to and on and NWP to for the movement. In Connecticut the NWP during the for but to the for ERA Florence Kitchelt helped to the from the but with Alice and with the the NWP to the but Kitchelt that a in the amendment and in mainstream women and to the who not join the to Alice that Kitchelt was the member to a but the founding of advanced the or that them of the age Kitchelt was not but she to the at and the state and was to the state with her in a of women's made her an As a social feminist and activist she the political climate in Writing to of the she that a was in Connecticut to to are in to the which are for for the Amendment. The of the women are too in and in work to over to the Party in with by our Committee to the of the in the a of and women to the ERA. the of and the of to political As she and she that a as a for in the to women's the CLWV and the gave Kitchelt a in the and the of the new for women and to the her to the Women's League of Voters made her an in NWP and to of the between Kitchelt and the NWP over ERA and became an important and she a of the and in to and of the state as as a of A in rights, Kitchelt and and of 1943 she and new for the Amendment. Writing to Kitchelt that to the the . . was in Connecticut and is now the of 1943 over women their and the to as the between the NWP and the to the to has been to as the of the to the of the National to as as between over and the as a it to their own and of the NWP Kitchelt followed the and with the who Paul's and she her over the NWP of the Amendment. Her important for of the conflicts that between the NWP and women's over protective labor A of that over from the suffrage movement, and ideological and limited the effectiveness of the early ERA over protective legislation a over the of the the NWP objected to protective legislation on the that it women's economic the by labor that protective legislation limited women's economic and in the this supported which to better working and for female the time of the and it became clear to of women that protective legislation on a of to women with opportunity in the In protective legislation women from their to work by the and time of them to the paid and made them to the and from and As has the focus on protective labor legislation women's place in the labor the and of the ERA on protective legislation to their The NWP that the ERA the for protective legislation because it equality . . not by that an amendment was and that the be at the state In the of the in to the The is no place to between the is It is not a place for or . . . I will with that the to is to to the It is not to the an which but will the and it for or to or she in to or rights and and National League with to the ERA because that it not the labor women on a or female The the on a and legislation working to the place in the of Kitchelt that protective legislation was but came to the that protective legislation limited women's economic and political that a amendment equality and by her as a Kitchelt was of her her of protective legislation the of the ERA and the As a she at with the of the that the NWP a by the amendment with the of which she the focus from protective legislation to Kitchelt with the made to the which and with by Writing to Kitchelt that the in in the and that it in the the of time in one her of protective legislation as the was but as a and as an she to her own she that the the of Kitchelt with NWP and her own over protective In Kitchelt time from scholars to her that ERA not protective which she in the and in her and The one that a of her and to a from Alice In the article the Equal the Florence Kitchelt . . . is one of a of and the National Women's who are the the of the National Women's . . . not wish to legislation for women Following this Alice a from one member who Kitchelt of a and a of the Kitchelt and the a the of equality on this Kitchelt her to she by is that and for and women are to the for and that to Kitchelt's focus on protective legislation and the Kitchelt but it of and to her Paul's of the early as the NWP that protective legislation women's opportunity in the and to that women in the As the NWP that the the to women and that of against as and the and the that women and in the The NWP the that women were and that women be with children, which women's Moreover, that protective legislation be on the and that protective labor legislation to Kitchelt's with her to of the for and against ERA. As a to the movement, Kitchelt on the NWP to as she in the she to her and a of the NWP her with and NWP but she was as an and was by a In she the position and on to new to the ERA. Her to the and political in and the state her with for the ERA. the of In one she Paul's on a by ERA in which that the ERA not protective As Kitchelt that the ERA but she that and women special legislation that was with this position and made clear that special legislation on sex the legislation was a and of the movement against and Kitchelt in the of that the ERA of but she and women of protective legislation as by the In she of the of the but she to the of protective legislation as a which the and her to mainstream for the Kitchelt was not and the state she time writing and from the NWP and her but as her and not with their Kitchelt for that she to to the in by the of their that ERA by Kitchelt's be to us . . . it to the It is I that who are to the of the Amendment on as to the of the Amendment. not Paul's a from who of I want to the because I accept the of of and who are of the because I an in to of which Kitchelt's that Paul's of the movement her own work and the of the by the from the and the to the and by Paul's Kitchelt was on the In a to Kitchelt this is that the of NWP Alice is that the in their and on their of NWP and helped the for is one for she was in Following the in the previous the to the the over the ERA . . . is to . . them and just our In this Kitchelt took and her on from Kitchelt's with women and NWP her that the Party a Despite her with and of the of the Kitchelt took and her on from the and mainstream women's NWP on the to and the and to the with to for the work the National to focus on and suffrage and human rights. In Connecticut the NWP and was ineffective. In the of the important for the the not the NWP it in for the and NWP the for the The history of the is an important in the history of the ERA. of this the of activism and a of the of female political the history the NWP and of the and the the and in to the held by NWP she was not a or for the use her to and to for the early to the ERA was on the that it protective but their the between social feminists and the In National of the that the the . . . the of the is at to have for a and that a was the to but as women's working and during the the and on the protective legislation argument and that a amendment the The and the Women's to the and that protective legislation to in the the between took to that the of the was not In with CLWV Kitchelt to be to the League to but she former CLWV to the but the and that the amendment was . . as an to . . . and . . a new of . . . that rather than Kitchelt was by a member that no objected to ERA on protective but that it a . . . of her League that the ERA was not in Connecticut, it . . is one of the the are no against In to Connecticut women have a of female but for the to on and female office in the or political not to the and against working as as the of women to the the to the state and to the ERA. In 1943 to the ERA and the state followed In of Kitchelt that the League to place the ERA on their and she with her to better on the her Kitchelt the League and to the ERA to their In the League a at the to to the ERA and that the The was not the Kitchelt to her with the and to the of the to her and the general that mainstream women's held the to by she the in the of the will to that Kitchelt and of the to her and the Kitchelt and in the and to the In a of the women and on the of the ERA. to Kitchelt's is no that the League will on rights at this time . . . I not that position will be the to work is that want to and and that be to use our past of to the and of the on the of a As she now are the opportunity to women have . . . is no as as . . . It women than the of and their for the is her this too to it . . . have a now to from a and a that the ERA too between and as an the of the Nations was that a on the be the of the and that the amendment a for As a leader in the she the position that state legislation better women's she that and a the for a It is important to that the identified with and increasingly from women's the from the Women's Committee and in to the ERA because not it was an important not the ERA the on the of the but the her to rights and her on protective to the she the for a on the were made in I the for the And be now a her on the of a of and the for American it to the vote for was a of of The of the of to be but the was As for a of legislation which women's and human of and that she on that legislation was she in the of the between the League and the it the between the over the ERA and the from protective legislation to the of and the of basic human rights. it is clear that and for during the the League on specific and during to and In the NWP a in the of the ERA. Kitchelt and in their of the League of and the Nations and In the the for and in women's equality on the to is clear that the post-suffrage between women's over a of but the struggle for the ERA and the conflicts between social and radical feminists over protective legislation the the of female political activism on Kitchelt's participation in the and the NWP during the the of women's Kitchelt an amount of time the and time to rights, which she in her and in with women's It is clear that she of the feminist in her of rights, her with Alice a with NWP and NWP to Kitchelt new with NWP and the time in Kitchelt a to feminist women in the for the ERA. has that the of the NWP . . feminists to their in a hostile As a member of the Kitchelt the of that the the time that she working with women gave her a of to her in the suffrage movement. the ideological conflicts she with Alice Kitchelt a but feminist Her with and former NWP women her to in the suffrage the of that Kitchelt and the NWP to the women Paul's with her over the ERA As has the NWP a and of of the with the of the NWP and in a took place between and new The new or as to to the and of the and of the A to a the in the but the and the a between of the and of the For and to with during the suffrage movement, and to and women's rights. the the to work for the ERA. Kitchelt a with women to and the she not directly in the NWP she from NWP and the her and her to that Paul's of the Party the for the Kitchelt supported the of the NWP and to from and who were directly in the and from one it as the in their but as it the and who for the were from and their and A Kitchelt she to to her she on the are to and of will to of of . . . women to to our own to is no for or the Amendment. . . . not their to but to the in was that Paul's limited the effectiveness of the to a not or her . . . she was . . to the of of in who she the to and and to her of and with their Kitchelt but of the NWP and that the for the ERA be better by a new and of the of the NWP the to for the ERA to Paul's to Kitchelt's post-suffrage work her to a of social and political as her work with the and the and the Paul's of the ERA limited feminist she been to with the and have a to rights. the NWP in with a because to the of the and to In Kitchelt her in the and her for for but have vote in the of rights for women is the Party to it as own by to the movement with In the of new in and the of the she that just as League of Women Voters made an initial by women the that by I the National Woman's Party has made a by as a of a the Party Kitchelt's the of as the of the ERA and her and to Paul's are of the between women's during this time For of the of the ERA the long struggle for and as Kitchelt it a of women to the Amendment to the with were her from the NWP not her from continuing her ERA it her with and of the In a to Kitchelt for her is a in this struggle for a better position for to that are in the in In her Kitchelt women and and the NWP no than by our own are to and of will to of . . . In she her as the of at age and her their in with her Kitchelt in Florence followed in Florence Kitchelt and to over on the ERA but the of their and held for is and to the of female which the NWP helped of she her and Kitchelt's will her and I am I have with as clear and as and as were to have the opportunity of working with was Florence Kitchelt in her to of the ERA to mainstream is a to the in the It is clear that the of the NWP and but radical a in The that the a of women and In to the early to women in in the women made clear as voters, office holders, and as of the state gave to the which that the of the and of the and the for ERA activism in the NWP limited female for the ERA during the As it from women's was a and Paul's and to the Paul's of the NWP as the with mainstream the on of the it is no Kitchelt's with and the of the Kitchelt helped mainstream for the Amendment and a feminist the she with former NWP her in her and the for the ERA gave Kitchelt a new and The history of the ERA be the of the and Kitchelt a in the NWP or is as an ERA she a in the ERA in Connecticut and her to the of state this the and of women's political activism during the post-suffrage Kitchelt's trajectory working a of from the and the and of women's political activism during the Moreover, her activism the of political that to women and our of the and not of It is clear that the conflicts between women's the NWP and made in the of a and women are for their and Florence work that women a in the ERA of the ideological conflicts the of women to rights not promoted and their activism the for the women's movement and their as of the struggle to basic rights, from of