Part-solid pulmonary nodule phantoms with realistic morphology and densities by stereolithography-based 3D-printing: from design to validation

Part-solid pulmonary nodule phantoms with patient-realistic morphologies and multiple radiodensities were manufactured using benchtop SLA 3D-printing. Clinical relevance of our 3D-printed nodules is demonstrated and statistically substantiated in a multicentre, single-blinded reader study including seventeen reading radiologists. Our methodology renders pulmonary nodule models that overcome limitations of generic, standardised, commercially available phantoms, often lacking complexity and realism. Manufactured nodule phantoms can provide an absolute ground truth for software training and validation, CT protocol optimisation and (image) quality assurance. Our modified 3D-printing method is readily available to other groups and can be customised to specific research applications.