Learner models: design, components, structure, and modelling

Abstract Learning is at the heart of every progress the human species makes. It is most effective when it considers who we are as individuals, what learning approach we prefer and what we already know to begin with. In the digital age, we strive to capture such information in the form of a digital representation—the so-called learner model—, to tailor learning-related systems to this information and build upon it to create more personalised learning experiences. Over recent years, the proliferation of diverse models across various educational applications and disciplines has made it challenging to access targeted research. In this survey, we aim to address this gap, reviewing the latest advances in learner modelling and conducting a comprehensive analysis of the existing approaches, focusing on developments from 2014 to 2023. With the help of a systematic literature review (SLR), we want to provide designers and developers of learner models with a structured overview and simplified entrance into the topic and the field of learner models. We investigate the question: What do learner models look like and how are they filled, kept up to date and used? To this end, we analyse and classify existing approaches. Our findings provide a comprehensive and structured overview of the field of learner modelling, allowing researchers to navigate and understand the diverse approaches more easily and providing developers of learner models or adaptive systems with a practical tool to access relevant information according to their needs.