From trace to trace maker: Oligocene–Miocene coprolites of southern Poland and their potential producers

In this paper we describe coprolites from deep-marine Oligocene sediments, shallow- and deep-marine Miocene deposits, as well as Miocene continental environments in southern and central Poland. The Oligocene and Miocene coprolites from marine environments (hereinafter referred to as M) are classified into six morphotypes: (M1) sinusoidal, (M2) elongated and straight, (M3) curved, (M4) irregular, (M5) S-shaped, and (M6) oval. Sinusoidal coprolites, previously interpreted as originating from predatory fish (<i>e.g</i>., <i>Palimphyes</i>, <i>Oligophus</i>, and indeterminate taxa), are reinterpreted here, based on actualistic observations, as crustacean (crab) faeces. Morphotypes (M2)-(M5) are attributed to fish, while the oval type (M6) is tentatively linked to columbid-like birds, although alternative producers cannot be excluded. Miocene deep-sea coprolites are represented by relatively long, complex fecal masses composed of constricted strings, suggesting holothurians or cephalopods as potential producers. Elongated Miocene coprolites from shallow-water environments are likely to have been produced by teleost fish - most likely Sparidae - or by sharks. However, other vertebrates, including toothed and toothless cetaceans and porpoises, cannot be ruled out. The terrestrial Miocene specimens include five morphotypes (hereinafter referred to as T-terrestrial, T1-T7): (T1) oval, (T2) sinusoidal, (T3) elongated with two submorphotypes (T3/1-siderite individuals and T3/2-apatite individuals), (T4) S-shaped, and (T5) irregular. They are interpreted as coprolites likely produced by snakes (T1-T3/1, T4, T5), and small mammals such as Sciuridae and/or Chiropteridae (T3/2). Overall, these data provide new insights into the diversity of post-Mesozoic coprolites and refine our understanding of their producers and associated ecosystems in Central Europe.