Prediction of <i>there</i> -associated nouns based on verbs in expletive sentences: Effects of cue validity, proficiency, and immersion experience

Abstract This study examines the effects of cue validity, proficiency, and immersion experience on the predictive processing of there -associated nouns in expletive sentences. A visual-world eye-tracking task manipulated the validity of the predictive cue by varying verb number (singular; plural) and aspect (simple; perfect): For example, There {is/are/has been/have been} just {one apple/two apples}. The results show that both L1 speakers and L2 learners predicted the target nouns within the predictive region. However, the prediction speed slowed down as cue validity decreased: Singular verbs with the perfect aspect elicited the slowest predictions, followed by singular verbs with the simple aspect and then plural verbs, regardless of the aspect. Furthermore, immersion experience, and not proficiency, affected the L2 predictive processing, with only immersed learners exhibiting predictive patterns. These results suggest that both L1 speakers and L2 learners engage in prediction, but the robustness/timing of their predictions is influenced by linguistic and individual factors.