Enhancing conceptual understanding and retention in thermodynamics through haptic-enhanced immersive simulations: a quasi-experimental study

Immersive technologies are increasingly used in science education, yet the role of embodied interaction – particularly haptic feedback – in promoting conceptual understanding remains underexplored. This study investigated the effectiveness of Haptic + Visual Immersive Simulations (H+VISs) compared to Visual-only Immersive Simulations (VOISs) in teaching thermodynamics. A quasi-experimental design was employed with 130 secondary students, who completed pre-, immediate post-, and delayed post-tests using a validated Thermodynamics Concept Test. Results showed that the HVIS group significantly outperformed the VIS group in both post-tests, indicating improved learning gains and retention. The HVIS group also scored higher on the Embodied Thermodynamics Scale and reported lower cognitive load, as measured by the Paas scale. Repeated measures analysis of variance revealed significant main effects for time and group, as well as a significant interaction, favoring the HVIS condition. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA-TLX) ratings indicated that the HVIS group experienced higher perceived performance and lower effort and frustration. Path analysis further revealed that embodied learning partially mediated the effect of instructional modality on retention. These findings support the integration of haptic feedback in immersive Science and Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) instruction, emphasizing the role of multisensory engagement in fostering deeper learning and reducing cognitive effort in abstract domains such as thermodynamics.