Material cycling and greenhouse gas emission triggered by glacial melt in the Third Pole region: a comprehensive review

The Third Pole region, encompassing the vast Himalayan and Tibetan Plateau, is undergoing rapid cryosphere and ecological transformations. This review synthesizes findings from 93 peer-reviewed studies (2000–2024) to evaluate the interactions between glacier retreat, permafrost degradation, and material cycling (carbon, methane, and nitrogen). Mean air temperature has increased by 0.3–0.4 °C per decade, while glaciers have lost nearly 36% of their area since the 1990s. Permafrost active layer thickness has deepened by more than 50%, releasing carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), and methane (CH 4 ) previously locked in frozen soils into the atmosphere and water systems. Methane fluxes from wetlands, lakes, and hydrates amplify warming feedback, while nitrogen deposition and fertilizer inputs alter ecosystem nutrient cycling and elevate nitrous oxide (N 2 O) risk. These processes intensify feedback loops that accelerate regional and global climate change. The findings highlight the Third Pole’s role as both a critical water tower for Asia and a major contributor to global greenhouse gas budgets under warming scenarios. Effective policy responses require black carbon mitigation, GLOF early warning systems, permafrost-resilient infrastructure, sustainable nitrogen management, and regional data-sharing platforms. Future research should prioritize long-term monitoring, interdisciplinary flux measurements, and integrative modeling to better capture cryosphere–hydrosphere–biosphere–atmosphere interactions. The stability of the Third Pole is a must for global climate resilience.