Integrated assessment reveals plowing/no-tillage rotation as the trade-off considering crop yield and environmental performance in the Loess Plateau

Meeting global food security demands while maintaining environmental sustainability is a critical challenge for agricultural production systems. Population growth and global warming necessitate land management practices that simultaneously increase agricultural productivity and mitigate climate change. This study aimed to evaluate different tillage practices within a complex framework of various indicators (crop production, environmental footprint and soil health) to determine the optimal practice for ensuring long-term sustainability in agricultural production. We performed a 12-year (2007–2019) field study to examine the effects of plowing/no-tillage rotation (CN), continuous no-tillage (NT) and continuous plowing tillage (CT) on a winter wheat–spring maize rotation in the Loess Plateau, with focus on their yield, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, carbon footprint (CF), and net ecosystem economic benefit (NEEB). The comprehensive evaluation index ( CEI ) was used to assess the synergies and trade-offs among the productive, economic and environmental aspects of the three tillage practices based on Entropy-TOPSIS method. Compared with CT, CN and NT significantly increased by 10.3 % and 3.9 % for grain yield, and 39.4 % and 26.4 % for energy production, respectively. Carbon footprint (CF) was significantly higher in CT (5799 kg CO 2 -eq ha −1 ), followed by CN (3477 kg CO 2 -eq ha −1 ), and NT (2468 kg CO 2 -eq ha −1 ). Similarly, water footprint (WF) was also higher in CT (3.2 m 3 kg −1 ), followed by CN (3.0 m 3 kg −1 ), and NT (2.8 m 3 kg −1 ). However, CN and NT achieved lower yield-scale CF by 53.2 % and 59.0 %, and yield-scale WF by 10.1 % and 5.9 % compared to CT, respectively, and it resulted in a net ecosystem economic benefit (NEEB) increased of 37.8 % and 31.4 %, respectively. Thus, it is recognized there is a trade-off of grain yield improvement and GHG emissions in CN and NT. Notably, CN improved soil quality index (SQI) and has contributed to an overall improvement in soil structure and soil nutrients. This study demonstrates that CN achieve a trade-off among improves crop productivity, environmental sustainability and resource conservation, positioning it as a climate-smart agricultural practice well-suited to the challenges associated with semi-arid regions. These findings provide valuable insights for farmers and policymakers seeking to promote sustainable agriculture in similar ecological contexts. • Plowing/no-tillage rotation achieve higher yield and income from the agricultural system. • Plowing/no-tillage rotation enhanced SOC sequestration and reduced GHGs emissions. • Plowing/no-tillage rotation could minimize carbon footprint while insuring net ecosystem economic benefit. • Plowing/no-tillage rotation offer significant advantages for sustainable agricultural production.