Prevalence and Genetic Diversity of <i>Haemoproteus</i> and <i>Leucocytozoon</i> in Raptors and Other Captive Birds at the National Zoological Garden in South Africa

Avian haemosporidian infections have been associated with disease outbreaks in zoos and rehabilitation centers globally. This study aimed to determine the occurrence and genetic diversity of avian haemosporidian parasites in captive birds at the National Zoological Garden in South Africa. One hundred and eighty-three blood samples from five orders and 15 species of captive flamingos, vultures, owls, ibises and parrots were analyzed for haemosporidia by nested polymerase chain reaction assays. The samples were collected as part of the zoo's studbook and archived at South African National Biodiversity Institute's Wildlife Biobank. The overall infection rate was 36.1%, and infections by Leucocytozoon spp. (33.3%) were significantly higher than Haemoproteus spp. (14.8%) (p < 0.001). Twenty-one samples (11.5%) had mixed Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon infections. The Spotted Eagle Owl (Bubo africanus) and Barn Owl (Tyto alba) had the highest infection rates. Twenty-six sequences, similar to published sequences of Leucocytozoon spp. (lineages lCHRKLA02, lCIAE02, and lBUVIR02) and Haemoproteus spp. (lineage hTYTAL6) were obtained. Two new lineages (lBUBCAP01 and hBOSHAG02) are described in this study. This is the first molecular survey of haemosporidian parasites in captive birds of the orders Accipitriformes, Pelecaniformes, Psittaciformes, Phoenicopteriformes, and Strigiformes in South Africa. This study provides new geographical and host records of known and novel haemosporidian lineages. It highlights the need for intensive surveys of these parasites in populations of captive and free-ranging birds in South Africa, regular monitoring of infections, updated screening methods, and insect control in the zoo's animal collection to avoid disease outbreaks.