Evidence for symbolic use of ochre by Micoquian Neanderthals in Crimea

Ochre use is widely regarded as a potential marker of symbolic behavior in Paleolithic societies. We conducted a multiproxy analysis of 16 ochre pieces from Middle Paleolithic Micoquian sites in Crimea [Zaskalnaya V (ZSKV), ZSKVI, and Prolom II] and mainland Ukraine (Mukhovets), spanning up to 70,000 years. Using portable x-ray fluorescence, scanning electron microscopy coupled to energy-dispersive spectroscopy, and technological analysis, we identified deliberate modifications including grinding, scoring, flaking, and scraping. Three pieces (ZSKV-05, ZSKV-06, and ZSKV-07) show features exceeding utilitarian use: One is shaped into a crayon-like tool with repeated resharpening, another appears to be a crayon fragment, and a third bears engraved, polished surfaces. These traits suggest the intentional production of marks and curated use. While practical applications (e.g., hide processing) remain plausible for other specimens, the evidence supports symbolic use among some Crimean Neanderthals. Our results highlight their cognitive complexity and underscore the importance of regional, multiproxy approaches in evaluating the emergence of symbolic material culture.