Mitigating energy holes and enhancing QoS in delay-tolerant networks: the EEEHR-M protocol

Abstract Delay-Tolerant Networks (DTNs), characterized by intermittent connectivity and limited resources, are highly susceptible to energy depletion and decreased network lifespan. To address these challenges, this paper introduces the Energy Efficient Energy Hole Repelling Protocol for Mobile Nodes (EEEHR-M). EEEHR-M employs a dynamic clustering mechanism where cluster formation and Cluster Head (CH) selection are governed by node energy levels and proximity to the sink. The protocol adapts to node mobility, thereby maintaining robust connectivity and efficient data routing. Simulation results demonstrate that EEEHR-M reduces energy consumption by 8%, enhances Quality of Service by 4%, and decreases latency by 6% compared to Epidemic, Optimal Energy Consumption Protocol, and Optimal Opportunistic Forwarding. These improvements validate EEEHR-M’s potential for application in energy-constrained, mobile DTN environments.